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Dakar, Portrait of a Capital City

Dakar, métamorphoses d’une capitale, by architects Carole Diop and Xavier Ricou, takes readers on a journey through the history of the Senegalese capital, from pre‑colonial Lebu villages to contemporary urban laboratory.

Reviewed: Carole Diop and Xavier Ricou, Dakar, métamorphoses d’une capitale, Paris, Éditions de l’Aube, 2024, 352 pp.

In their book Dakar, métamorphoses d’une capitale, Senegalese architects Carole Diop and Xavier Ricou present a masterful exploration of Dakar. Through meticulous archival research and iconography, the authors explore the lesser-known history of the former West African colonial capital, analyze its influence on the African continent and beyond, and examine the numerous projects that are transforming the city. They also invite readers to revisit the city’s rich heritage in order to better anticipate its future. Dakar, métamorphoses d’une capitale is not just a beautiful book ; it is also a comprehensive research project, bringing together a wealth of previously unpublished information and documents on Senegal’s capital city within a single volume. [1]

Revisiting the past

In the first part of the book, Carole Diop and Xavier Ricou meticulously reconstruct the “epic history of this mythical city,” drawing on various archival sources such as maps, paintings, engravings, watercolors, and photographs. The authors review the history of the city, its foundation, and its expansion, without concession or omission. They remind us that the history of Dakar began long before the arrival of Europeans. Originally called Cape Verde, the Dakar peninsula was occupied by the Lebu people from the end of the 14th century. The city did not take shape until 1856, a few years after slavery was abolished in France (in 1848), when colonial functions were transferred from Gorée Island to Dakar. At that time, the Lebu villages were organized around 12 large trees known as Pénc, some of which still stand proudly on the Plateau today. Alongside these villages, the colonial town was taking shape and acquiring major infrastructure. The first of these was the port, which was built in 1862 and is still one of the landmarks of the city. The railway arrived in 1885, and embankments were built along the seafront for defensive purposes. In 1902, the capital of French West Africa (Afrique de l’Ouest Française, AOF) moved from Saint‑Louis to Dakar. The Plateau became home to the governor’s palace, a town hall, Place Protêt (later renamed Place de l’Indépendance), hospitals, and markets (see Figures 1 and 2). After a plague epidemic in 1914, the Medina district was created to house the “African” population (p. 71). The peninsula was laid out in a grid pattern, which has had a lasting impact on the city and its place names : for example, the name “Point E” dates from this period and is still used today to refer to a city neighborhood. In the 1950s, the city experienced a sharp population increase, largely due to the groundnut production crisis. The population increased from 3,000 in 1869 to 18,000 in 1904, 34,000 in 1926, 92,000 in 1936, and 214,000 in 1945, reaching 465,000 by 1965. Many Senegalese people left rural areas to seek a better life in Dakar, which was not prepared for such an influx.

Figure 1. Dakar, Plateau. 1:5,000 scale, based on aerial photographs taken in 1925

Source : Service géographique de l’AOF (AOF Geographic Service).

Figure 2. Place Protêt, Plateau, Dakar, 1920s

Source : personal collection of Xavier Ricou.

A laboratory for urban planning

The book provides a detailed analysis of the various attempts to plan the city, which became a testing ground for architects and urban planners from France.

The first master plan, drawn up in 1945, created the modern city with the Allées du Centenaire, while urbanization spread across the entire peninsula and to the villages of Ngor, Yoff, Cambérène and Ouakam (see Figure 3). Various housing production policies were tested (Biehler et al. 2015). SICAP (Société Immobilière du Cap-Vert – Cap-Vert Real-Estate Company) was established in 1950, followed by SNHLM (Société Nationale des Habitations à Loyers Modérés – National Company for Low-Cost Housing) (see Figure 4). These two institutions aimed to construct housing developments, primarily consisting of modern, comfortable and well-equipped villas and apartment buildings, intended for the middle classes and civil servants. The SICAP neighbourhods still exist and can be easily recognized in the urban landscape. At the same time, the first buildings were taking shape on the Plateau. The university, renamed Cheikh Anta Diop University in 1987, was built in 1959.

From 1952 onwards, the city expanded beyond the Cap-Vert peninsula. To the east, the neighborhood of Dagoudane—part of Pikine—was urgently developed to accommodate new arrivals (see Figure 5). Over time, Pikine grew to be “the double of Dakar” (Vernières 1977), with its vast suburbs reaching a population of 80,000 in 1968. As the population grew from the 1960s onwards, the city became covered with shanty towns, known locally as “floating districts” (“quartiers flottants”) because their inhabitants would always move a little farther away after each eviction. People gradually filled the gaps along the railway line.

In the 1970s, in response to the housing crisis, the World Bank intervened by proposing the construction of “parcelles assainies,” i.e. sanitized plots with access to water and electricity (Osmont 1995). This term “Parcelles Assainies” is still used today, but now refers to a borough of Dakar. Another significant development was the Castors experiment between 1955 and 1970 : based on a cooperative model of the same name established in France, residents proposed to build their own homes collectively (Osmont 1978). However, these projects and initiatives were unable to meet demand. SICAP and SNHLM became increasingly disengaged. The city, once limited to the Plateau, began spreading to neighboring self-built suburbs (Parcelles Assainies, Pikine, Guédiawaye, and, more recently, Keur Massar) under the influence of the Senegalese diaspora, who invested heavily in real estate (Tall 2009). These suburban communities are now the most densely populated areas, even though housing remains relatively low-rise. Dakar’s urban history is thus characterized by a shift of the city center and its population eastwards.

Figure 3. Master plan by Lopez, Guitton, and Lambert, drawn up in 1946

Source : Dakar AOF, Albums de l’Afrique Occidentale Française, 1951, pp. 65–66.

Figure 4. The 1954 Fann–Hock estate, one of the first planned housing projects

Source : SICAP archives.

Figure 5. Development of the Dagoudane–Pikine neighborhood, created in 1952 : urbanization and centrality shift eastwards

Source : 1:50,000 maps of Dakar – AOF Geographic Service, 1956, 1960 ; Dakar Geographic Service, 1967 ; IGN France and Senegal, 1983.

An era of major urban projects

Dakar faces a number of day-to-day problems, including a lack of housing, challenging mobility, limited access to water and electricity, and frequent flooding (Leclercq et al. 2023). The authors also review the major projects that have impacted the city over the past two decades. During Aboulaye Wade’s presidency (2000–2012), the city sought to compete with other global cities by planning prestigious cultural facilities, such as the Grand Théâtre, the Renaissance monument, and the Museum of Black Civilizations. To bring these projects to fruition, a body called APIX (Agence pour la Promotion des Investissements et des Grands Travaux – National Agency for the Promotion of Investments and Major Projects) was established in 2000. This agency, which is directly linked to the president’s office, launched major projects, beginning with the “Autoroute de l’Avenir” (“Motorway of the Future”), also known as the “toll motorway,” which was built by the French group Eiffage. Some 40,000 people were displaced to make way for this 42‑kilometer (26‑mile) section of highway, which links the Plateau to the suburbs. Opened in 2013, the motorway saves two hours of driving time for the 50,000 vehicles that use it daily between the peninsula, the new satellite town of Diamniadio, and the new Blaise Diagne Airport, which opened in 2017 and is located almost 50 kilometers (30 miles) east of the Plateau. Upon taking office as president of Senegal, Macky Sall continued this policy of major projects through his “Emerging Senegal Plan” (“Plan Sénégal Émergent”). The transformation of the city is intended to reflect the economic boom that the country is experiencing. However, informal activities are being singled out as incompatible with the logic of urban modernization. Diamniadio was planned as early as 2015 (Diop et al. 2018 ; Coralli and Diongue 2023) and was initially intended to accommodate 350,000 inhabitants.

Ten years later, after expropriation and land disputes (Lavigne Delville and Diongue 2024), the first institutions were built in the ministerial precinct, the first matches were played in the stadium, the first students graduated from the polytechnic university and the first inhabitants moved into the residential areas (Figure 6). Meanwhile, transport infrastructure is being planned to ease congestion on the Plateau and Cap-Vert peninsula (Figure 7). The Regional Express Train (Train Express Régional, TER) line (Kopf 2020), which runs parallel to the motorway, will serve suburban communities, the new town, and the airport. In May 2024, the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system—which has an exclusive right of way—began operating, running from north to south across the peninsula (Figure 8).

The issue of affordable housing remains a major challenge (Mouton 2023). In 2019, former president Macky Sall launched the 100,000 Homes Programme, establishing SAFRU (Société d’Aménagement Foncier et de Rénovation Urbaine – Land Development and Urban Renewal Company) to develop plots of land for private developers to build homes on. Five years on, only a few thousand dwellings have been built, mostly 40 kilometers (25 miles) or more from the city center, by cooperatives or companies housing their employees (Cité des Fonctionnaires for civil servants ; Cité de la Diaspora, built with the support of overseas Senegal citizens ; Cité des Policiers for police officers, etc.). However, the target of building 100,000 homes is far from being attained.

Figure 6. Diamniadio urban development plan

Source : Délégation Générale à la Promotion du Pôle Urbain de Diamniadio.

Figure 7. Regional Express Train and Bus Rapid Transit routes, parallel to the new toll motorway

Source : Ceryx Traffic System, 2022.

Figure 8. Bus Rapid Transit

© Armelle Choplin, 2024.

Figure 9. Cité de la Diaspora in Bambilor

© Armelle Choplin, 2024.

A vibrant cultural and artistic scene

Carole Diop and Xavier Ricou devote fascinating pages to Dakar’s rich architectural history and strong cultural identity. Since its establishment, Dakar has been adorned with buildings inspired by various styles and periods. The authors classify these into five categories : the International Style, Modernism, Brutalism, “African Modernism” or “Critical Regionalism,” and Colonial Architecture. The city has also been profoundly influenced by neo-Sudanese architecture, of which Sandaga market—which was demolished in 2021—was a notable example (Figure 10).

The authors also emphasize Dakar’s long-standing role as a major cultural center. From the First World Festival of Black Arts in 1966, through the first edition of the DAK’ART Contemporary Art Biennial in 1990, to the “Partcours” arts program organized in the city since 2010, Dakar has established itself as a world cultural capital at the forefront of artistic expression, such as Afropolitanism (Mbembe 2020), that is open to the world and nourished by cultural cross-fertilization. Local artists, international stars, and art dealers rub shoulders in prominent art galleries. However, the artistic side of Dakar is not limited to the Biennial. Another Dakar exists, with its artists and studios nestled in working-class neighborhoods, producing a unique urban culture. The most striking expressions of this culture in the 1980s and 1990s were the Set Setal movement, which encouraged citizens to clean up the city, and the Boul Falée (T’occupes) movement, which was influenced by hip‑hop culture. Even today, artists remain highly productive, and Dakar’s countless pieces of graffiti transform the city into an open-air museum (Figure 11). The diaspora plays a significant role in disseminating Senegalese culture.

Figure 10. Destruction of Sandaga market

Source : Personal collection of Xavier Ricou.

Figure 11. The art of graffiti as an urban marker, Cheikh Anta Diop University

© Armelle Choplin, 2024.

Identifying and safeguarding Dakar’s heritage

Carole Diop and Xavier Ricou reveal more than just the beauty of Dakar. They also show us another side to the city : one whose heritage is under threat and falling into disrepair. They ask, “What has become of our Dakar ?” and write a poignant “Manifesto to Save its Soul” (p. 234). They seek to “make known,” “inventory,” “identify,” and “locate” the city’s heritage before it is too late. They acknowledge the impossibility of being exhaustive, noting that “Dakar’s heritage is not only architectural ; it is also natural and intangible” (p. 235). In the final chapter, they compile a “catalogue raisonné of remarkable buildings and sites,” listing heritage assets threatened with imminent disappearance (p. 258). Photographs of these buildings and sites are accompanied by captions and maps showing their locations (Figures 12–14). [2] They argue that it is “urgent, imperative and vital” to raise awareness of this wealth and the importance of preserving it (p. 236).

Figures 12, 13 & 14. Extracts from the catalogue raisonné of remarkable buildings in Dakar

Dakar, Métamorphoses d’une capitale is a timely book which invites us to move back and forth between the past, the present and the future. Some readers may be disappointed that it says little about the ordinary residents of Dakar : the men and women who both build and endure this city on a daily basis. Similarly, they may be disappointed that the book makes little or no mention of politics and religion, both of which are central to life in Dakar. However, this was not the authors’ intention. Through the contributions of academics such as Felwin Sarr, architects like Thierry Melot and Caroline Geffriaud, and elected representatives including former Dakar mayor Barthélémy Dias, Carole Diop and Xavier Ricou capture the complexity of this city. Dakar can be as disconcerting, harassing, and off-putting as it is endearing, vibrant, and inspiring.

Bibliography

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, “Dakar, Portrait of a Capital City”, Métropolitiques , 12 septembre 2025. URL : https://metropolitiques.eu/Dakar-Portrait-of-a-Capital-City.html

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